A Historical and Contemporary Analysis of the Dialectical Relationship Between Environmental Art and Environmental Movements from 1960 to the Present

A HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY ANALYSIS OF THE DIALECTICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL ART AND ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS FROM 1960 TO THE PRESENT A PAPER SUBMITTED FOR THE COMPLETION OF SENIOR RESEARCH FOR THE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES STETSON UNIVERSITY BY Stefanie Perosa IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND GEOGRAPHY ADVISOR Dr. J. Anthony Abbott, Ph.D. MAY 2016 ii Table of Contents List of Illustrations……………..........................................................................................iii List of Tables……………............................................................................................…..iii Acknowledgments…………..............................................................................................iv Abstract……….………...........................................................................................……...v Introduction……......................................................................…....................……………1 The National Environmental Policy Act............................................................................4 Study Area...........................................................................................................................6 Methodology.......................................................................................................................7 Literature Review…………........................................................................................….....9 Observations and Data Analysis........................................................................................11 The Land Ethic in Environmental Art.............................................................................11 Pre-NEPA.................................................................................................................14 Post-NEPA................................................................................................................16 Contemporary............................................................................................................25 Conclusions and Discussion…..........................................................................................23 Tables and Figures.............................................................................................................31 Works Cited iii List of Tables Table 1: Terminology........................................................................................................31 Table 2: Categorization Characteristics.............................................................................32 List of Illustrations Figure 1 - Spiral Jetty (1970)…………………………………...................…..................33 Figure 2 - Sun Tunnels (1976)……………………………………...................................34 Figure 3 - Effigy Tumuli – Water Strider (1983-1985)…………......................................35 Figure 4 - Lightning Field (1971-1977)………………………….....................................36 Figure 5 - Sorrowful (2012)………………………………………...................................37 Figure 6 - Ghosts of Consumption (2012)………….....……………..............…...............38 Figure 7 - Father and Sons – African Lion and Cubs……..................………..................39 Figure 8 - The Storm – African Elephants………………………….................................39 Figure 9 - Road to Paradise (2007)………………………………...................................40 Figure 10 - Chester Arnold (2007-2008)…………………………...................................40 Figure 11 - Storm Drains are the Mouth of Reno (2013)………......................................41 Figure 12 - Among the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California (1868)............................42 Figure 13 - Cattleya Orchid and Three Hummingbirds (1871).........................................43 iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. J. Anthony Abbott for advising me throughout the entirety of this project. I would also like to acknowledge my classmates for proofreading my work at every milestone and for their critiques on my presentations. v Abstract For the purposes of this project, I examined the dynamic and interdisciplinary uses of art. Specifically, I focused on eleven paintings, drawings, and sculpture as methods of expression and as a dialectical medium that influences and is influenced by social change on environmental issues. By establishing that art is a creative catalyst to profoundly affect social change and to promote reflection and questioning, I introduced a theory to categorize these pieces of environmental art. I examined the genres, forms and styles of my selected environmental artworks before and after the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act (1970) to temporally categorize environmental art into three distinct periods; pre-NEPA (pre-1970), post-NEPA (1970-2000) and Contemporary (2000-present). Upon their categorization, I searched for common themes and patterns amongst the art pieces themselves and inferred how they may serve as vehicles to translate environmental ethics and virtues. 1 Introduction Before the development of photography, art primarily took the form of drawings, paintings, and sculpture. Religious and political parties utilized art throughout the centuries, predominantly as propaganda to generate reactions. These images greatly influenced the ways in which people thought according to the circumstances of their times. For example, during the Baroque period of the 1600 and 1700’s, art works reflected “the deep religious, cultural and social unrest” when the Catholic Church in Rome was attempting to reassert itself in the midst of the Protestant Reformation (Carl 2012, 7). Neoclassicism, which took place from around 1760 to 1830, was “born on the eve of the Age of Revolution. It reflected the intellectual, social and political changes of the period by becoming the semiofficial voice of the French Revolution” (Irwin 1997). Art today still serves this prevailing purpose, among many others. Specifically, I focused on eleven paintings, drawings, and sculpture as methods of expression and as a dialectical medium that influences and is influenced by social change on environmental issues. Through examination and research, I introduced a theory to categorize environmental art. There are a plethora of different purposes for environmental art, depending, quite obviously, on the artist and their intentions. Environmental art serves as an advocate for the protection of the environment. Generally, environmental artists blur the lines between art and activism by informing and interpreting nature and its processes and educating and raising awareness of environmental problems (Adams 2010). Some artists and installations strive to utilize environmental forces and materials by using the earth and its natural cycles as the art form itself. This method ultimately heightens the viewers’ awareness of nature’s forces and processes as it is both educational and offers an 2 opportunity for self-reflection. Most environmental artworks encourage social change by pushing viewers to re-envision our relationship to nature. Many innovative and forward-thinking artists and inventors propose new ways to coexist with our environment that may aim to reclaim, remediate or restore damaged environments and ecosystems (Bower 2010). I examined the societal effects, genres, forms and styles of eleven environmental artworks before and after the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act to temporally categorize environmental art into three distinct periods; pre-NEPA (pre-1970), post-NEPA (1970-2000) and Contemporary (2000-present). Upon their categorization, I looked for common themes and patterns amongst the art pieces themselves; for example, are forms of experiential art or reflective art predominantly found within one period, or do the art pieces depict common subject matter within a period? I believe that these patterns do exist, as the environmental art will reflect the environmental implications, ideals, virtues, or triumphs of the times in which they were created. Using journals, articles, critiques, and the pieces themselves, I inferred if these eleven pieces and their artists inspired or contributed to, or are inspiring and currently contributing to social movements advocating for particular environmental values. It is important to note that the eleven art pieces (see List of Illustrations) that I chose to examine were not selected based off of certain criteria. Works such as Spiral Jetty (1970), Sun Tunnels (1976), Effigy Tumuli - Water Strider (1983-1985) and Lightning Field (1971-1977) were chosen based off of their existing notoriety. Sorrowful (2012) and Ghosts of Consumption (2012) are pieces that were actually displayed at Stetson University, and their accessibility made it easy for me to discover them. Father and Sons – African Lion and Cubs, The Storm – African Elephants, Road to Paradise 3 (2007) and Chester Arnold’s other piece (2007-2008) as well as Storm Drains are the Mouth of Reno (2013) were found randomly during the beginning stages of my research. Among the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California (1868) and Cattleya Orchid and Three Hummingbirds (1871) were selected for comparative purposes while searching for Romantic style landscape artworks. I recognize that eleven artworks are not representative of this fifty-year time span as there were countless amounts of environmental artworks created during this time. However, each piece uniquely contributes to the discourse. I chose to study environmental artworks from 1960 to the present because 1960 is the year in which land art was said to have begun. Michael Archer states that “1961 [was] the start of a decade in which “previous assumptions about art were to be put to the test” (Archer 1997, 6). From the 1960s on, major players such as Robert Smithson, Nancy Holt, and Walter de Maria began to make their appearances in the art world, challenging the “typical” methods of art making and viewing. Land art was considered avant-garde and revolutionary for the time as this form of artwork expanded beyond the museum and gallery settings. Within this decade, there was also a shift in the American consciousness concerning the environment. For example, in 1962 Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring was published and in 1963 the Clean Air Act was enacted. Around the time of NEPA, the government began to regulate the environment and codify it into law, therefore making our earth something that deserved protection. NEPA’s enactment served as the cornerstone of the environmental programs built by the United States Federal Government, the States themselves, and local governments in the decade of the 1970s (USEPA 2015). 4 The National Environmental Policy Act The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was signed into law on January 1, 1970 and established the broad national framework for protecting our environment. This was the start of a new year and decade, and served a revolutionary moment in environmental policy. According to epa.gov, NEPA requires federal agencies to assess the environmental effects of their proposed actions prior to making decisions. Using the NEPA process, agencies evaluate the environmental and related social and economic effects of their proposed actions. Title I of NEPA contains a Declaration of National Environmental Policy. This policy requires the federal government to use all feasible means to create and maintain conditions under which man and nature can exist in productive harmony. Section 102 in Title I of the Act requires federal agencies to incorporate environmental considerations in their planning and decision-making. Specifically, all federal agencies are to prepare detailed statements assessing the environmental impact of and alternatives to major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. These statements are commonly referred to as Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) and Environmental Assessments (EA). Title II of NEPA established the President's Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) to oversee NEPA implementation. The duties of CEQ include ensuring that federal agencies meet their obligations under NEPA, overseeing federal agency implementation of the environmental impact assessment process, and issuing regulations and other guidance to federal agencies regarding NEPA compliance. NEPA's basic policy is to assure that all branches of government give proper consideration to the environment prior to undertaking any major federal action that significantly affects the environment. During its formative years, CEQ 5 laid the groundwork for almost all of the current environmental legislation. Along with the creation of NEPA was the founding of new environmental litigation organizations; the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund. These and other environmental and citizen groups used the NEPA tool to sue a host of federal agencies for noncompliance with NEPA. By the middle of the 1970s, environmental concerns were routinely being built into government actions. Few projects proceed today that provoke an environmentally unsatisfactory rating from EPA. Many projects now contain environmental safeguards that would not have resulted without NEPA. The NEPA process has encouraged a major change in the way the government deals with environmental issues. Overall, NEPA has codified an important national policy commitment and created helpful technical and organizational tools to further the act’s objective. 6 Study Area I focused my studies on western art in North America. Although there are many international environmental artists and artworks that could add diversity and strength to my research, I focused on the North America due to the accessibility of research and knowledge as well as my familiarity with the United State’s environmental movements and policies. 7 Methodology To begin, I defined the terminology used throughout my research. I utilized the book Art History: The Key Concepts written by Jonathan Harris, an art historian at the University of Liverpool, as a guide. To preface the rest of my paper, I defined my temporal categorizations for the chosen eleven art pieces; this includes their reach, their limitations, and their general characteristics. I separated my time periods as so: pre- NEPA (1960-1970), post-NEPA (1970-2000) and Contemporary (2000–present). Within each of these categories I examined the art pieces themselves, read art surveys, art journals and critiques utilizing the techniques that Beardsley, Jokela, Irwin and other sources employed to properly execute their analysis of art in their writing. These authors discuss environmental artworks’ functions, composition, style, their effects, and what that they encompass and stand for. They delve into multiple perspectives of what makes a piece of land art aesthetic and non-aesthetic, what constitutes the picturesque, and the psychological functions upon the viewer. They bring to the readers’ attention an individuals connection to place and the landscape of identity. These authors also consider the historical contexts. By doing so, viewers can understand how and why the pieces look as they do and why they represent what they do. In addition, it provides a glimpse into how viewers may have reacted to such depictions during the time of creation. Therefore, I examined the historical contexts of the art pieces; specifically, the social, political, economic, technological, and spatial environments while simultaneously exploring the timeline of U.S. environmental policies, movements, and issues. This is crucial as it contributes to the narrative that I have been attempting to convey. I have searched for common themes and patterns amongst the art pieces themselves; for 8 example, forms of experiential art or reflective art may be predominantly found within one period, while some art pieces depict similar subject matter within another. I sampled this as any other art historian has; through provided definitions and terminology. Art itself and its interpretations are innately subjective, but with the definitions and terminology, I have clarified my samples and ascertained how the pieces that I considered contribute to the narrative within their period. 9 Literature Review There are a plethora of different purposes for environmental art, depending, quite obviously, on the artist and their intentions. Generally, environmental artists blur the lines between art and activism by informing and interpreting nature and its processes and educating and raising awareness of environmental problems (Adams 2010). According to Bower, contemporary activist approaches are referred to as “environmental art” or “ecological art”. Earlier art forms are referred to as “land-art” and “earth art”. All terms that fall under the umbrella of environmental art serve as advocates for the protection of the environment. Ecological art, land art, and earth art/earthworks all fall under this category. Ulbricht argues that the evolution of the environmental art education definition can be applied to the evolution of the definition of environmental art in general. He discusses how a “major function” of art “conveys meaning about the local and greater environment” (Ulbricht 1998, 24). As far as art created in the pre-NEPA period, “earthworks” and “land-art” would be the best terms to research and explore. Malamud defines environmental art exclusively as “land art, green art and earthworks”, which bring landscape paintings and experiential, site-specific sculptures to mind. However, land art and earthworks are not the only terms that are catalogued as environmental art forms. He claims that the purpose of environmental art is to “interpret nature, inspire audiences, re-envision our relationship with nature and reclaim and remediate damaged environments” (Malamud 2008). I claim that all terms that fall under environmental art, not just land art and earthworks, can be applied to his purpose. Before going further, I need to clearly define “dialectical relationship” as this is the focus of my research. I would like to define it as Crawford has; “In a dialectical 10 relationship, the two terms of the relation designate conflicting forces. It is common, in addition, to apply this relation to cases in which the conflicting interaction brings into being some third object. In the applications we shall consider, this third object is identified with the object of aesthetic attention or appreciation [environmental art]. Thus the two terms designate forces whose conflicting interaction is a determining factor in the constitution of the object of appreciation. In other words, the aesthetic appreciation can be seen as relating to both natural and artifactual elements interacting in other than purely harmonious or straight-forwardly casual ways” (Crawford 1983, 49). 11 Observations and Data Analysis The Land Ethic in Environmental Art Previously, the environment was only appreciated for its formal, economic and aesthetic qualities, as was art in the realist and modernist movements. Minteer states that “nature itself was accorded only instrumental value; it was not deemed worthy of direct moral concern” (Minteer 2009, 3). The Land Ethic is useful in itself as I reflect upon the environmental values, virtues and ethics, terms that I will use interchangeably, of Americans from the 1960’s to the present. Leopold provides significant insight into people’s views of nature, human tendencies, their place in the world, and obviously ethics. By understanding a bit of environmental philosophy, we may be able to better understand the motivations behind, the reactions to, and our own interpretations of the art works themselves. Leopold defines an ethic as “a differentiation of social from anti-social conduct” (Leopold 1949, 202). This begs the question, what was ethically allowable according to the existing environmental policies and standards? How has that changed throughout time? And finally, what is being reflected upon or brought to our attention in the art pieces? “There is as yet no ethic dealing with man’s relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it…the land-relation is still strictly economic, entailing privileges but not obligations” (Leopold 1949, 203). Leopold’s Land Ethic provides a glimpse of the historical land issues of the time, helping to frame and provide some background for my pre-NEPA and Transitional art categorizations. “An ethic may be regarded as a mode of guidance for meeting ecological situations…possibly a kind of community instinct in-the-making” (Leopold 1949, 203). How are these ethics portrayed and/or epitomized in art? Edward Spera’s intricate and beautiful paintings (Fig. 7 and 8) of animals definitely reflect the idea that animals (as Minteer and other environmental 12 philosophers refer to as “nonhumans”) are deserving of moral concern and consideration. They are intrinsically valuable themselves, not valuable just to serve a function for humans. Many of Spera’s pieces show the animals’ environments in their natural landscapes. I would presume that he would agree with what Minteer suggests; “we have to establish ethical principles that will allow us to condemn the destruction of nature on the grounds that it destroys intrinsic natural value” (Minteer 2009, 4). “While species, habitats, and the like may “count” in environmental policy in the sense that their recovery and conservation are the codified targets of policy, they do not appear to count morally in the sense that policy and law codifies their moral standing or status. In other words, environmental policy at bests seems to only reflect an indirect regard for the environment; of direct ethical concern are the main human interests shown by the provision of clean air and water, species conservation, and so forth” (Minteer 2009, 7). But can art? Does reflective and phenomenological environmental art codify their moral standing or status? Sandler also writes about environmental ethics and the intrinsic beauty and value of nature. He expands on the concept of wonder, which is applicable to viewing and experiencing environmental art. “The benefits of wonder to its possessor are many: challenge, engagement, exhilaration, joy, and satisfaction…wonder is environmentally justified, environmentally responsive and environmentally productive. He quotes Rachel Carson as she states, “Those who dwell among the beauties and mysteries of the earth are never alone or weary of life…this leads to inner contentment and to renewed excitement of living” (Sandler 2006, 260). I think there are some great parallels in the formation of the land ethic as well as the creation of art when Leopold states that the “evolution of a 13 land ethic is an intellectual as well as emotional process”, much like the process of creating art. It is a product of “social evolution” and our problems are ones of “attitudes and implements” (Leopold 1949, 225-226). 14 Pre-NEPA Pre-NEPA artworks such as Among the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California (Fig. 12) and Cattleya Orchid and Three Hummingbirds (Fig. 13) are paintings that were created before the time frame that I chose. However, they epitomize what most environmental artworks depicted before the enactment of the NEPA, as well as how people viewed their relationship to nature and their place in the world. In these artworks and during this time, nature was viewed as something infinite; a vast and boundless store of resources with the capacity to absorb anything we do. The environment was viewed as a miracle of creation, but it was not yet something that humans were necessarily deemed a part of. When viewing these paintings, it is though we are viewing nature through a window, inhibiting reflection on our place in the world. There are no signs of human presence in these works, thus expressing an appreciation for the natural, untouched beauty of the earth. To take a more contemporary approach, reflecting on pre-NEPA artworks contributes to a movement towards conservation. Pre-NEPA works are retrospective in this regard. Viewers can witness art and the large natural world that is free from human impact, a scene extremely rare and very different from what we perceive today. Edward Spera’s works, although contemporary, express this appreciation for nature free from deleterious humans. Edward Spera hopes to convey to viewers the incredible beauty of the creatures that share the world with us. His hyper-realistic paintings are reproductions of the photographs that he takes himself on his travels. Spera considers his paintings tributes to the existence of the particular animals as his reproductions help to fund conservation efforts internationally. Spera’s paintings reflect his experiences and memories of nature. The creative process begins with an encounter, 15 perhaps only a brief sighting or a glimpse, but enough to fuel his inspirations. From the initial experience, the composition embedded in his mind's eye, Spera re-creates the memories with the help of the many reference photos he has taken on location (Edward Spera 2016). 16 Post-NEPA Adams argues that in the 1960’s, artists “questioned the restriction of painting” and rather than painting the landscape, “they sculpted the land itself”. This idea supports Michael Archer’s claims when he states that “1961 [was] the start of a decade in which “previous assumptions about art were to be put to the test” (Archer 1997, 6). Land art is considered a part of the post-Minimal works. This is when “the meaning of an artwork did not necessarily lie within it, but as often as not arose out of the contract in which it existed” (Archer 1997, 7). Kastner delves into the artwork of Robert Smithson, Nancy Holt, Michael Heizer and others who are thought to have initiated this land art movement. A few common themes from these pieces of land art include the use of natural materials, linking the piece of work to a specific place or “a part of its condition”. Walter de Maria states, “isolation is the essence of land art…the way in which the work is seen is not extraneous to its condition and the meaning, but part of it” (Archer 1997, 95). For example, the post-NEPA work, Lightning Field (Fig. 4) by de Maria is a large land art structure located in New Mexico. It is permanent but isolated; isolated meaning it is out on its own, separate from populated areas, and difficult to reach. However, as it is standing alone, it encompasses and is encompassed by the environment. This site-specific sculpture relies on the forces of nature. Lightning Field (Fig. 4) is a sculpture composed of symmetrical rods with solid pointed tips placed 220 feet apart out in the open field in the middle of New Mexico. “Part of the essential content of the work is the ratio of people to the space: a small number of people to a large amount of space…viewed over at least a twenty-four hour period” (Kastner 1998, 233). It is experiential in that the viewer must travel to this place to see this work and it is entirely reliant upon the landscape in 17 which it was placed. “The land is not the setting for the work but a part of the work” (Kastner 1998, 232). Along with Spiral Jetty (Fig. 1), this “art project’s nature and scale exceed the limits normally available within the traditional museum or gallery setting” (DAF Support The Lightning Field). To put the importance of the selection of place into perspective, “the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona and Texas were searched by truck over a five-year period before the location in New Mexico was selected” (Kastner 1998). De Maria was looking for an area that embodied flatness, high lightning activity and isolation. The Spiral Jetty (Fig. 1) is considered an earthwork and one of the earliest forms of land art. Made of basalt mud and rock, this sculpture piece by Robert Smithson regresses back to primitive and yet innovative methods of art-making. Using the materials from the earth itself, this 1500-foot structure is to be visited, viewed and walked on as a “dislocated spectatorial experience” (Boetzkes 2010, 79). It is site specific and encourages reflection while suggesting harmony and a flow that viewers’ eyes can follow as they observe the motion of the jetty. “The spiral was an ideal form to advance Smithson’s project of creating an artwork that would respond to the conditions of the site and also disrupt the central orientation associated with the modernist paradigm of spectatorship” (Boetzkes 2010, 79). Due to it being site specific, the Spiral Jetty (Fig. 1) is subject to the elements as its environment affects the visibility of the artwork. For example, in times of flooding or tides, the spiral can barely be seen – perhaps for even years at a time. Over time, it reappears again, but it may be a bit more altered than its original state. “The close communion between Spiral Jetty and the super-saline Great Salt Lake emphasizes the entropic processes of erosion and physical disorder with which 18 Smithson was continually fascinated (UMFA Robert Smithson 2012)”. Boetzkes states that the Spiral Jetty: “is not defined solely by its oppositional stance toward the museum or the gallery…but rather pointedly elaborates the theme of dislocation through the historic and geologic particularities of the site” (Boetzkes 2010, 79). This sculpture “references the local folklore that there was a treacherous whirlpool in the Great Salt Lake…a disruption in the continuity of time and space” (Boetzkes 2010, 79). The author also states that Spiral Jetty (Fig. 1) is a macrocosm of the molecular structure of a salt crystal…because the lake is a body of saline water, its shore is encrusted with salt crystal deposits” (Boetzkes 2010, 79). “Weaving together its allusions to local mythology and to the salt crystals that accumulated on it, the work internalized the historic and geological resonances of this site into its aesthetic critique of modernism” (Boetzkes 2010, 79). Sun Tunnels (Fig. 2), created by Nancy Holt, is a site-specific, large-scale sculpture. Viewers can crawl into the tunnels to 1) experience some shade and relief from the sun and 2) view the constellations that are created by the shining of the sun through the drilled holes in the tunnels. Each of these tunnels aligns with the sunrise and sunset in the winter and summer solstices. The angle of the sun in the sky affects the constellations inside – the art is always different and forever changing with the seasons and the time of day. “The shapes and positions of the areas of light differ from hour to hour, day to day, and season to season, relative to the positions of the sun. The spots of warm light in the cool, shady tunnels are like stars cast down to Earth, inverting the sky, turning day to night” (Kastner 1998, 228). “The artist's interest in light, perspective, time, and space certainly influenced her photographs, films, sculpture, and installation art. Sun Tunnels (Fig. 2) consists of four massive concrete tunnels, each eighteen feet long and nine feet in 19 diameter, laid out in the desert in an open ‘X’ configuration. On the solstices, the tunnels frame the sun as it passes the horizon at sunrise and sunset. In the top of each tunnel, Holt drilled small holes to form the constellations of Draco, Perseus, Columba, and Capricorn. These holes, and the tunnels themselves, act as frames or lenses through which the visitor can view the surrounding sky and landscape of the Great Basin Desert” (UMFA Sun Tunnels self-guide 2012). “It is intended to introduce the viewer to the cosmic dimension of time” (Kastner 1998, 88). Nancy Holt bought these forty-acres specifically as the site for the work. She claims, “the feeling of timelessness is overwhelming” in the large, flat valley (Kastner 1998, 227). “Time is not just a mental concept or a mathematical abstraction…time takes on a physical presence…being part of that kind of landscape and walking on earth that has never been walked on before evokes a sense of being on this planet, rotating in space, in universal time. By marking the yearly extreme positions of the sun on the horizon, Sun Tunnels (Fig. 2) indicates the cyclical time of the solar year” (Kastner 1998, 227). Holt “wanted to bring the vast space of the desert back down to human scale…when you stand at the center of the work, the tunnels draw your vision into the landscape, opening up the perceived space. But once you’re inside one of the tunnels, the work encloses and surrounds you, and the landscape is framed through the ends of the tunnels and through the star holes. The work paradoxically makes available, or focuses on, a part of the environment that most of the people who live nearby wouldn’t normally have paid much attention to” (Kastner 1998, 227). “Effigy Tumuli (Fig. 3) is located at Buffalo Rock State Park in Ottawa, Illinois. The land that the park is now established on was used originally for coal mining purposes in the 1930s. The land was reclaimed, and transformed into a park. Michael Heizer was 20 commissioned to build Effigy Tumuli (Fig. 3) by the director of the park board. Effigy Tumuli (Fig. 3) is made up of 5 mounds, evocative of Native American mounds, in the shapes of animals native to Buffalo Rock. This includes; a snake, frog, turtle, catfish and a water strider. The mounds are unrecognizable from the ground but when the viewer sees the artwork from above, they are able to recognize the different animal shapes. Heizer was interested in “positive and negative shape and he would demonstrate this through the addition or subtraction of land” (Lailach 2005). In this instance, Heizer is using positive shape to compel the viewer to look outwards from the focal point, which varies on each sculpture. The water strider’s legs are centrifugal and persuade the audience’s eyes to follow the legs out from the water strider’s body. However, as beautiful as the mounds are, they could be considered detrimental to the surrounding environment. “Detrimental” could be applied to any of the other installations as well since it could be argued that they destroy the land by moving it from its natural place. This in turn can cause many different effects to the earth, such as flooding in unnatural areas and erosion, making the soil unable to bare vegetation (Lailach, 2005). These arguments are valid but are unfortunately beyond the scope of my study. Examining how environmental artworks may have negative affects on the environment rather than postitibe affects would be a great topic for future research and studies. The creation and experience had when viewing these environmental artworks results in a newfound sensitivity to specific places and landscapes. Tim Jokela’s passage discusses an individuals’ connection to place and the landscape of identity. This provides some insight into how individuals may perceive these art pieces and installations. He states that “identities are located in symbolic time and space – in an ‘imaginary 21 geography’” (Coutts 2008, 3). He reminds readers that the environment, just like art, is in itself, a multidimensional concept. One of the most crucial elements in land art includes the idea that the earth affects people and people affect the earth; dialectics. In land art, the histories of the represented areas are utilized to further the messages the artists are attempting to convey. Land art is meant to affect the ways in which we view the world, and challenge our current schemas. Beardsley’s article is a great pre-NEPA resource as he discusses the definition and meaning of land art, according to how it was commonly defined in the 80’s. Beardsley states, “land art has employed new materials at an unprecedented scale in unexpected locations…we come to perceive these works as radical departures from tradition, refutations of sculptural conventions and art world economics…[they are] fully engaged elements of their respective environments that asserted new conditions for the production of sculpture” (Beardsley 1982, 226). Contrasting from the pre-NEPA works that seemed infinite, boundless and untouched, these post-NEPA artworks suggest boundaries. They are envisioned as creations with a beginning and an end and can be changed and altered by both people and the environment. The human presence within nature is apparent as people and the artists come to understand that humans are participants in these natural processes. Scale is especially important in that it influences viewers’ perceptions. For example, when looking at the large-scale Spiral Jetty (Fig. 1), one may look at how great of an influence we can have on our environment. Conversely, another may look at how small our impact is when we think about the artwork in the context of the whole of the earth. With Sun Tunnels (Fig. 2), we can better understand how people frame their worldview when we step inside one of the tunnels, our own construction, and examine the landscape. Inside 22 the tunnel, what one may see is limited to those circular openings. When we step out of our construction and leave the tunnel, the world becomes much more immersive and more than we have the ability to comprehend all at one time. Ultimately, these land art, post-NEPA works do more for us in terms of considering our place in nature, and help us to realize that we are not separate from, but living in and experiencing nature everyday. 23 Contemporary At the turn of the millennium, concerns over environmental issues had increased, and artists have responded. Today, many assume roles as both activists and artists. Boetzkes discusses how contemporary art and artists “reinvent our relationship to the environment” (Boetzkes 2010, 25). Boetzkes pushes readers to realize that environmental art and social and political ideologies are involved in a dialectical relationship. One does not exclusively influence the other, but they both continuously influence each other. She states that “art has a part to play in critiquing the ways we frame nature through representation as well as through science and technology…it does so by forging an aesthetic awareness of how nature exceeds these discourses and representations” (Boetzkes 2010, 2). Overall she is interested in exploring “how the earth prompts this redefinition of art and art historical analysis…[and how] artists have challenged our assumptions about the earth and…how they propose an ethical relation to it” (Boetzkes 2010, 3-4). The natural world does not only serve as a source of inspiration or subject to represent, but Brown states that within contemporary art, it has become “a realm to influence directly” (Brown 2014, 44). As many of these other sources have suggested, the 1960’s brought forth a new eco-consciousness. Brown mentions Art and Ecology Now and how it confronts “some of the most urgent social, political, economic, scientific, technological and ethical issues facing humanity today”, and this could be found even more so today (Brown 2014, 46). The environment is affected and does affect all of those factors just mentioned. Aligning with Brown’s ideas, Art Works for Change is an organization that creates “contemporary art exhibitions around the world to address critical social and environmental issues. [They] harness the power of art to promote 24 awareness, provoke dialogue, and inspire action.” They provide detailed information on past, upcoming and current exhibitions that focus on a wide range of environmental issues from our ecological footprint, to extinction and environmental ethics as well as our current water crisis. The theme of contemporary environmental art, based off of my prior knowledge and this article, is best summarized by Randy Jayne Rosenberg, the curator of the show and executive director of Art Works for Change. She states that this art conveys that “humans aren’t just part of the problem but also the solution; by harnessing nature’s most brilliant ideas, we can improve the quality of human life while living in harmony with nature” (Art Works for Change 2008). Art Works for Change “applies the transformative power of art to promote awareness, inspire action and provoke dialogue” (Art Works for Change 2008). Malamud states that today, green artists are bringing back a more “direct and intelligent engagement with the natural world.” His generalized template states that environmental art encourages dialogue and discussion on environmental issues. “We are a part of nature. How do we make it visible?” The age-old fundamentals of art – enchantment and fear – have grown and transformed into including “sustainability”. The contemporary idea regarding environmental art revolves around cognitive connections between form and content; art exhibiting values greater than the aesthetic and economic but “philosophical value”, as Leopold mentions. Art can now address issues bigger than art, as it serves a socially functional purpose. Art can have a functional community impact as we have travelled from an aesthetic purpose to world improvement. Chester Arnold’s paintings (Fig. 9 and Fig. 10) delve into the complexity of the human psyche. Arnold portrays how natural landscapes are subverted with the detritus of 25 human accumulation. “My paintings are part of a visual dialogue running the length and breadth of human history. The search for excellence in this Art and Craft has led me to explore the natural world and the human events that inhabit it, constructing narratives that celebrate and question our presence in the world. Although representational, I seek a way of painting that is richly traditional, yet radically and surprisingly new. I attempt to articulate more than the surfaces and dimensions of reality, summoning the wordless meanings and sensations that only visual art can” (Chester Arnold). Ghosts of Consumption (Fig. 6) is a sculpture that is not site-specific like some of the other environmental art sculptures previously examined. This artwork is meant for a gallery setting. Pam Longobardi has many pieces similar to this, meant to also bring awareness and cause viewers to think about their effect on their environment. Constructed entirely of found plastic objects that she retrieved herself from the waters of Hawaii, Alaska, Greece, Italy, and the Gulf of Mexico, she arranged the pieces in such a way that they are holistically and aesthetically pleasing with crucial gaps that separate the items to show the obscene number of objects just in this one area of the museum. She targets a specific problem to raise awareness for an issue. A common theme in many of her works involves the natural world in collision with the cultural world regarding the global use of plastic. These are items that we use everyday and when we discard them, we are oblivious to what happens to them. In Ghosts of Consumption (Fig. 6), Longobardi attempts to re-situate the items in culture as a reflection of ourselves, so we can look at who we are and what we are doing. Sorrowful (Fig. 6) by Krystal Sellers is a sculpture meant for a gallery setting. It is made from tire tread collected from the side of State Road 40, otherwise known as the 26 Florida Black Bear Scenic Byway in the Ocala National Forest. It represents a bear slain by a car, depicting the sad sight all too familiar to the people of the area. This piece helps to bring awareness to the death of black bears caused by motor vehicles in Florida, as well as our polluting behavior when people have blow-outs and leave their tire tread along the road in the forest. This artifact is meant to elicit an emotional response and time for reflection as people question their past, present and future actions. Storm Drains are the Mouth of Reno (Fig. 11) is a site-specific work that is part of a series. This storm drain movement helps to bring awareness to what is being washed into the mouth of the nearby rivers and water systems. Members of the community developed this idea to paint animals’ mouths as the mouths of the storm drains. If we would not pour the inevitable pollutants from our lifestyles into the mouths of these animals, then we should not put them into the mouths of the rivers. It brings awareness to the fact that as these pollutants are entering the water systems, they are affecting the animals (those of which are painted). By depicting animals in this manner and bringing awareness in this way, it becomes more tangible. People can better understand the prevalent issues and work towards fixing them as they watch what becomes washed down the drains due to rainwater. They are painted with vibrancy, and it grasps viewer attention. It provides an opportunity for reflection as it targets a specific problem to raise awareness for an issue. The contemporary categorization helps people situate themselves in the world as environmental actors. We are now forced to realize the human imprint and consider our relationship to the world as a consumer. Our effects become very real. Greatly contrasting from the pre-NEPA and post-NEPA categories, our place in a large natural 27 world becomes focused on items in that world and on the accumulating detritus of our culture. Environmental artworks emerging before and during NEPA do not speak specifically to how humans are manipulating the earth or, additionally, how that effect might be positive or negative. In time, our effects, we realize, are inherently problematic. We have the National Environmental Policy Act in place, but environmental artists, and the greater society as a whole, see the problems and understand themselves in the world in a different way. Frustration with what NEPA is not doing and/or not taking care of is articulated through these forms of art that are more activist in nature as they search for a resolution in the dialectic. 28 Conclusion and Discussion Based on my research, my historical and contemporary analysis is not factual, but instead inherently subjective and rhetorical. My “results” are formative yet inconclusive due to the social science based nature of the project. For the sake of time and the limited extent to which this project could be executed, I was restricted to choosing only eleven artworks. The ones that I did choose to analyze thus far were specifically chosen to make the points that I intended. This does not necessarily lend itself to credible findings, as they are not representative of all of the environmental artworks created between the 1960’s to the present. My intentions to find patterns and to introduce a theory of categorizing environmental art would require an analysis of a large amount of artworks making, that feat overly ambitious for the scope of this project. The dialectical influences cannot be wholly understood beyond general assumptions. It is important to clarify that the pieces I am looking at have had some type of impact. This research has not been centered on “if” there was an impact, because quite frankly, these pieces would not be well known or discussed if they did not initiate or contribute to some type of movement; whether that is a political movement or an ideological one. An evident transformation in the purposes and influences of the environmental artworks makes for an intriguing discussion. One could see that pre-NEPA works suggest a separation of man and nature. Post-NEPA works encourage reflection regarding the human’s place in nature. Although these patterns are subjective, that is not to say that the entire project should be discarded, however. This project sparked a new discussion within the environmental studies, art history and humanities realms. This subject is not one that has been previously examined and it could contribute to a new understanding in the social 29 sciences. The interactions between people, art and their environment can be reflected upon more now than previously, and possibly contribute to future research. For future research, it would be beneficial to downsize. Essentially, I attempted to define art terminology, define categories, choose art pieces and explain why they contribute to this area of study, analyze those artifacts through art surveys, journals and critiques, examine their historical contexts (social, political, economic), look for connections between the art works and the historical contexts (this includes the policies) and answer the following questions; do the art pieces reflect the environmental implications, ideals or triumphs of the times in which they were created? Does art serve as a vehicle to translate environmental virtues? If so, what environmental virtues are being portrayed? Are there common themes? How did the policies influence the art and the art influence the policies? By being more specific, better findings may be uncovered. Adversely, a large-scale environmental art survey could be conducted to satisfy all that I had attempted to in this study. I slowly learned that I needed to continually lessen what I was attempting to prove, show and accomplish, all while maintaining something interesting and contributory. Generating dialogue between environmental movements and the arts allows for a connection to be made amongst people. I use the term dialectic for this reason; to connect things that are not usually associated with one another. Art serves a very social function; art is created by people, for people and oftentimes about people. Much of the issues that we are having regarding the environment today are not issues of knowledge but they are social issues. We have the facts; we understand the processes and we know the consequences that our actions are having on the planet; but why are we not changing? 30 Why have not taken action on the most important thing that we have learned – that we are the problem? This is usually due to politics, economics, education, and everything in between. The decisions required are massive, and due to the very fact that we are human and have developed life styles spanning across hundreds of years, we are not yet willing, ready or able to adapt to the impending changes. It is just an inevitable quality of the human condition. The environmental problems we are facing are no longer solely issues of understanding, of knowledge or of research. The environment is a social issue. So what if there is some type of connection to these social aspects of life? They connect in that they are anthropogenic, and I wanted to see how they influence one another. Through these discussions, perhaps environmental art can play a more active role in the discourse of environmentalism as a philosophy, ideology and social movement. 31 Table 1: Terminology Aesthetic 1. The result of ideas, materials and techniques of construction focused specifically on the creation and combination of aesthetic qualities and properties (shape, color, pattern, texture, etc.) 2. The transmission and communication of sense and feeling through the body’s senses: touch, hearing, sight, smell and taste Analysis Define process of explanation involving self-conscious (and self-critical) use of concepts brought to bear upon a specific object of study. In analysis, it should be clear that the object of study does not, and cannot, simply present itself for study. The analyst must give it significance and value Artifact Term used to describe a humanly constructed object Artwork Work of art Term for the artistic artifact, either in its finished form or, more complicatedly, for the process of it making Form Describes and assesses the visual and material appearance of artworks. Qualities of line, color, tone, composition, modeling and surface texture - how this is composed and appears to the viewer Installation Artifacts commissioned and designed to be located within a particular indoor or exterior place or space (often actually built within a space) and intended to generate their meanings and value from their relationship to – as part of – the chosen environment. Minimalism 1. Term coined to describe the expressive character of artifacts produced by a number of artists who merged in the US in the mid 1960s 2. A sharp reaction against the forms and conventions of artistic expression predominant in 20th century modernist art Period Blocks of time or periods of study in art history are entirely matters of analytic perspective: artificial devices for ordering and mapping temporal (and in some ways spatial) relations between artists, artworks, styles, cultures, societies, theories of artistic development, progress and decay. Style A distinctive, recognizable pattern or form; individual or collective (Harris 2006) 32 Table 2: Categorization Characteristics Pre-NEPA 1960 – 1970 Nature viewed as something infinite; a vast and boundless store of resources with the capacity to absorb anything we do. The environment was viewed as a miracle of creation, but it was not yet something that humans were deemed necessarily apart of. These artworks express the appreciation for the natural, untouched beauty of the earth. There are no signs of human presence in these works. Post-NEPA 1970 - 2000 The human presence within nature is apparent as people and the artists come to understand that humans are participants in these natural processes. When viewing these environmental artworks results in a newfound sensitivity to specific places and landscapes. Utilizes natural materials, linking the piece of work to a specific place or “a part of its condition. Isolation is the essence of land art…the way in which the work is seen is not extraneous to its condition and the meaning, but part of it Contemporary 2000 - Present Encourages direct and intelligent engagement with the natural world. Geared toward the damage that we have already perpetrated upon the environment. Helps people situate themselves in the world as environmental actors. Art can have a functional community impact as we have travelled from an aesthetic purpose to world improvement. Our place in a large natural world becomes focused on items in that world and on the accumulating detritus of our culture. Frustration with what NEPA is not doing and/or not taking care of is articulated through these forms of art that are more activist in nature as they search for a resolution in the dialectic. 33 Figures Figure 1: Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty, 1970 Post-NEPA Location: Utah Materials: Basalt and earth gathered on site 34 Figure 2: Nancy Holt, Sun Tunnels, 1976 Post-NEPA Location: Utah Materials: Four 18 ft. long concrete tunnels 35 Figure 3: Michael Heizer, Effigy Tumuli, Water Strider, 1983-1985 Post-NEPA Location: Illinois Materials: Dirt and earth 36 Figure 4: Walter de Maria, Lightning Field, 1971-1977 Post-NEPA Location: New Mexico Materials: 400 stainless steel poles in a grid array 37 Figure 5: Krystal Sellers, Sorrowful, 2012 Contemporary Location: Stetson University Materials: Tire tread 38 Figure 6: Pam Longobardi, Ghosts of Consumption, 2012 Contemporary Location: N/A Materials: Found ocean plastic, steel pins, silicone 39 Figure 7: Edward Spera: The Storm - African Elephants Figure 8: Edward Spera, Father and Sons - African Lion and Cubs Contemporary Location: Edward Spera paints in Canada but takes photographs from all over the world including India, China, Africa, North and Central America, etc. Materials: Acrylic paint 40 Figure 9: Chester Arnold, 2007-2008 Figure 10: Chester Arnold, Road to Paradise, 2007 Contemporary Location: N/A Materials: Oil on line 41 Figure 11: Storm Drains are the Mouth of the Reno, 2013 Contemporary Location: Philadelphia, PA Materials: N/A 42 Figure 12: Among the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California (1868) Location: N/A Materials: Oil paint 43 Figure 13: Cattleya Orchid and Three Hummingbirds (1871) Location: N/A Materials: Oil paint 44 Works Cited Adams, C. 2010. 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